The Metamorphosing Professor: Adapting Teaching to Fulfill the Promise of Biology Education.

Teaching students at all levels of education has undergone extensive changes, particularly in the past decade. Our present student population has transformed dramatically in the 21st century due to the changing demographics of the nation, an increasing use of technology both inside and outside the classroom, along with an expectation to have information instantaneously available to peruse and utilize as a source of material. Today's instructors also need to adapt to these changes by assessing how well students are learning new concepts, as well as how much material students retain for future coursework. Here, we explore the recent history of science education, and the progress that has been made to overcome multiple learning obstacles, particularly relevant to PEERs (persons excluded because of their ethnicity or race) in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics). We hope to provide insight into how educators are restructuring the way they design their teaching portfolios to provide better outcomes for the students of today's educational system.

An Upper-Division, Remote Microbiology Laboratory That Blends Virtual and Hands-on Components to Promote Student Success during the COVID-19 Pandemic.

The COVID-19 shutdown forced many institutions of higher education to shift in-person teaching to emergency remote teaching. This was particularly challenging for laboratory courses, where students are expected to learn hands-on skills needed for their career goals. Here, we describe the transformation of an upper-division microbiology laboratory to a course that seamlessly integrates online simulations with safe, hands-on experiences that can be done from home. This blended lab course helped students attain learning outcomes similar to those achieved in the in-person class. We illustrate the implementation of Unknown Portfolios to help students gain the data analysis and critical thinking skills needed to identify an unknown microorganism. Our data show that students who took these online courses mastered material as well as students who took the lab in person, demonstrating proficiency in laboratory safety skills, hands-on techniques, and theoretical class content. Last, we explore online adaptations to enhance in-person lab classes, aiming at reducing the accessibility and equity gaps inherited in many courses, as well as discussing challenges that instructors might experience in this process.

Tackling Real-World Environmental Paper Pollution: A Problem-Based Microbiology Lesson About Carbon Assimilation.

Governmental and educational organizations advocate for the adoption of inquiry-based, student-centered educational strategies in undergraduate STEM curricula. These strategies are known to benefit students by increasing performance, enhancing mastery of class content, and augmenting affect, particularly in underrepresented racial/ethnic minority students. Among these strategies, case study and project-based learning allow students to master course content while collectively tackling relevant, real-world societal problems. In particular, environmental pollution with paper-based products provide a current problem by which microbiology students learn about the role of microorganisms in paper waste management as well as the microbiological and biochemical processes involved in protein secretion, nutrient uptake, and energy metabolism. Delivered in a flipped, hybrid class in a Technology-Enabled Active Learning (TEAL) laboratory, this lesson taught students about exoenzyme secretion, biopolymer hydrolysis, intracellular transport of sugars, and sugar catabolic reactions. Students demonstrated increased comprehension of exoenzyme function and secretion, as well as how cells uptake the products of exoenzyme hydrolysis. However, students had challenges in placing the transported exoenzyme products within metabolic processes. Our results show increased perceived learning from the students as well as an understanding of the societal implications of these microbiological concepts. Our lesson deviated from knowledge silos in which students learn information in discrete topics. While departing from employing traditional, compartmentalized learning approaches, this student-centered guided lesson frames the systemic nature of the microbiological and biochemical processes underlying the decomposition of organic matter in a real-world context.

A Call for Data-Driven Networks to Address Equity in the Context of Undergraduate Biology.

National efforts to improve equitable teaching practices in biology education have led to an increase in research on the barriers to student participation and performance, as well as solutions for overcoming these barriers. Fewer studies have examined the extent to which the resulting data trends and effective strategies are generalizable across multiple contexts or are specific to individual classrooms, institutions, or geographic regions. To address gaps in our understanding, as well as to establish baseline information about students across contexts, a working group associated with a research coordination network (Equity and Diversity in Undergraduate STEM, EDU-STEM) convened in Las Vegas, Nevada, in November of 2019. We addressed the following objectives: 1) characterize the present state of equity and diversity in undergraduate biology education research; 2) address the value of a network of educators focused on science, technology, engineering, and mathematics equity; 3) summarize the status of data collection and results; 4) identify and prioritize questions and interventions for future collaboration; and 5) construct a recruitment plan that will further the efforts of the EDU-STEM research coordination network. The report that follows is a summary of the conclusions and future directions from our discussion.

The Classroom Discourse Observation Protocol (CDOP): A quantitative method for characterizing teacher discourse moves in undergraduate STEM learning environments.

We describe the development and validation of a new instrument, the Classroom Discourse Observation Protocol (CDOP), which quantifies teacher discourse moves (TDMs) from observational data in undergraduate STEM classrooms. TDMs can be conceptualized as epistemic tools that can mediate classroom discussions. Through an inductive-deductive coding process, we identified commonly occurring TDMs among a group of biology instructors (n = 13, 37 class session) teaching in Active Learning Environments. We describe the CDOP coding scheme and its associated matrix that allows observers to reliably characterize TDMs in 2-min time intervals over the course of a class period. We present the protocol, discuss how it differs from existing classroom observation protocols, and describe the process by which it was developed and validated. Also, we show how this protocol is able to discriminate the discursive practices of instructors teaching in undergraduate STEM learning environments with sample qualitative and quantitative results that illustrate its utility for assessing and improving STEM instructional practices.

Alternative flow cytometry strategies to analyze stem cells and cell death in planarians.

Planarians possess remarkable stem cell populations that continuously support cellular turnover and are instrumental in the regeneration of tissues upon injury. Cellular turnover and tissue regeneration in planarians rely on the proper integration of local and systemic signals that regulate cell proliferation and cell death. Thus, understanding the signals controlling cellular proliferation and cell death in planarians could provide valuable insights for maintenance of adult body homeostasis and the biology of regeneration. Flow cytometry techniques have been utilized widely to identify, isolate, and characterize planarian stem cell populations. We developed alternative flow cytometry strategies that reduce the number of reagents and the time of sample preparation to analyze stem cells and cell death in planarians. The sensitivity of these methods is validated with functional studies using RNA interference and treatment with  Î³ irradiation or stressful conditions that are known to trigger cell death. Altogether, we provide a community resource intended to minimize adverse effects during ex vivo studies of stem cells and cell death in planarians.

Semaphorin 4A is dynamically regulated during thymocyte development in mice.

Semaphorins are important regulators of peripheral T and B-cell mediated immune responses in mice and humans. Modulatory roles of semaphorins in T cell development are also being characterized. We carefully analyzed the gene expression and protein levels of semaphorins 4A, 4D, and 7A at various developmental stages of T cell maturation in the thymus of C57BL/6 mice. Sema7a was expressed at very low levels, while Sema4d was abundant at all developmental stages of mouse thymocytes. We found the most interesting pattern of gene regulation and protein localization for semaphorin 4A. Both semaphorin 4A mRNA and protein were clearly detected on the earliest progenitors and were downregulated through thymic development. SEMA4A protein also showed a distinct cortico-medullary pattern of localization. Our findings contribute to an understanding of the complex roles played by semaphorins in the network of spatially and temporally regulated cues underpinning T cell development in the thymus.

The migration of hematopoietic progenitors from the fetal liver to the fetal bone marrow: lessons learned and possible clinical applications.

The ontogeny of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) is complex, with multiple sites of embryonic origin as well as several locations of expansion and maturation in the embryo and the adult. Hematopoietic progenitors (HPs) with diverse developmental potential are first found in the yolk sac, aorta-gonad-mesonephros region and placenta. These progenitors then colonize the fetal liver (FL), where they undergo expansion and maturation. HSCs from the FL colonize the fetal bone marrow (FBM), governed by a complex orchestration of transcription programs including migratory molecules with chemotactic activity, adhesion molecules, and molecules that modulate the extracellular matrix. Understanding the mechanisms that regulate the patterns of HSC migration between FL and FBM could improve the engraftment potential of embryonic stem cell-derived HPs, because these cells might display a migratory behavior more similar to early HPs than to adult HSCs. Understanding the changes in migratory behavior in the context of FL to FBM HSC migration could lead to new approaches in the treatment of blood malignancies. We will review the current knowledge in the field of FL to the FBM HSCs migration during development, focusing on changes in expression of molecules important for this process and exploring its clinical applications.

GATA-3 promotes T-cell specification by repressing B-cell potential in pro-T cells in mice.

Transcription factors orchestrate T-lineage differentiation in the thymus. One critical checkpoint involves Notch1 signaling that instructs T-cell commitment at the expense of the B-lineage program. While GATA-3 is required for T-cell specification, its mechanism of action is poorly understood. We show that GATA-3 works in concert with Notch1 to commit thymic progenitors to the T-cell lineage via 2 distinct pathways. First, GATA-3 orchestrates a transcriptional "repertoire" that is required for thymocyte maturation up to and beyond the pro-T-cell stage. Second, GATA-3 critically suppresses a latent B-cell potential in pro­T cells. As such, GATA-3 is essential to sealing in Notch-induced T-cell fate in early thymocyte precursors by promoting T-cell identity through the repression of alternative developmental options.

TOR signaling regulates planarian stem cells and controls localized and organismal growth.

Target of Rapamycin (TOR) controls an evolutionarily conserved signaling pathway that modulates cellular growth and division by sensing levels of nutrients, energy and stress. As such, TOR signaling is a crucial component of tissues and organs that translates systemic signals into cellular behavior. The ubiquitous nature of TOR signaling, together with the difficulty of analyzing tissue during cellular turnover and repair, have limited our understanding of how this kinase operates throughout the body. Here, we use the planarian model system to address TOR regulation at the organismal level. The planarian TOR homolog (Smed-TOR) is ubiquitously expressed, including stem cells (neoblasts) and differentiated tissues. Inhibition of TOR with RNA interference severely restricts cell proliferation, allowing the study of neoblasts with restricted proliferative capacity during regeneration and systemic cell turnover. Strikingly, TOR signaling is required for neoblast response to amputation and localized growth (blastema). However, in the absence of TOR signaling, regeneration takes place only within differentiated tissues. In addition, TOR is essential for maintaining the balance between cell division and cell death, and its dysfunction leads to tissue degeneration and lack of organismal growth in the presence of nutrients. Finally, TOR function is likely to be mediated through TOR Complex 1 as its disruption recapitulates signs of the TOR phenotype. Our data reveal novel roles for TOR signaling in controlling adult stem cells at a systemic level and suggest a new paradigm for studying TOR function during physiological turnover and regeneration.

Single-cell analysis of murine long-term hematopoietic stem cells reveals distinct patterns of gene expression during fetal migration.

BACKGROUND: Long-term hematopoietic stem cells (LT-HSCs) migrate from the fetal liver (FL) to the fetal bone marrow (FBM) during development. Various adhesion and chemotactic receptor genes have been implicated in the migration of adult LT-HSCs. However, their role in the migration of fetal LT-HSCs is not clearly understood due, in part, to the rare number of these cells in fetal tissues, which preclude classical gene expression analysis. The aim of this study is to characterize the expression of migration related genes in fetal LT-HSC across different anatomical locations during development. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We isolated fetal LT-HSC from different developmental stages, as well as different anatomical locations, and performed single-cell multiplex RT-qPCR and flow cytometry analysis of eight molecules involved in adult LT-HSC migration. Our results show that the gene expression of the chemokine receptor Cxcr4 in LT-HSC varies across developmental microenvironments and times, while the cadherin Cdh2 (Ncad) and the calcium receptor Casr show higher gene expression and variability only in FBM at 17.5 days post coitum (dpc). The cadherin Cdh5 (Vecad) maintains high expression variability only during fetal development, while the integrin subunit Itga5 (α5) increases its variability after 14.5 dpc. The integrin subunits Itga4 (α4) and Itgal (Lfa1), as well as the selectin ligand Selplg (Psgl1), did not show differences in their expression in single LT-HSCs irrespective of the developmental times or anatomical microenvironments studied. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Our data demonstrate that the expression pattern of phenotypically identical, single LT-HSCs fluctuates as a function of developmental stage and anatomical microenvironment. This is the first exhaustive gene expression comparison of migration-related molecules in fetal tissues across developmental times, enhancing the understanding of LT-HSC migration fate decisions during development.

Robo4 cooperates with CXCR4 to specify hematopoietic stem cell localization to bone marrow niches.

Specific bone marrow (BM) niches are critical for hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) function during both normal hematopoiesis and in stem cell transplantation therapy. We demonstrate that the guidance molecule Robo4 functions to specifically anchor HSCs to BM niches. Robo4-deficient HSCs displayed poor localization to BM niches and drastically reduced long-term reconstitution capability while retaining multilineage potential. Cxcr4, a critical regulator of HSC location, is upregulated in Robo4(-/-) HSCs to compensate for Robo4 loss. Robo4 deletion led to altered HSC mobilization efficiency, revealing that inhibition of both Cxcr4- and Robo4-mediated niche interactions are necessary for efficient HSC mobilization. Surprisingly, we found that WT HSCs express very low levels of Cxcr4 and respond poorly to Cxcr4 manipulation relative to other hematopoietic cells. We conclude that Robo4 cooperates with Cxcr4 to endow HSCs with competitive access to limited stem cell niches, and we propose Robo4 as a therapeutic target in HSC transplantation therapy.

Multiscale biomimetic topography for the alignment of neonatal and embryonic stem cell-derived heart cells.

Nano- and microscale topographical cues play critical roles in the induction and maintenance of various cellular functions, including morphology, adhesion, gene regulation, and communication. Recent studies indicate that structure and function at the heart tissue level is exquisitely sensitive to mechanical cues at the nano-scale as well as at the microscale level. Although fabrication methods exist for generating topographical features for cell culture, current techniques, especially those with nanoscale resolution, are typically complex, prohibitively expensive, and not accessible to most biology laboratories. Here, we present a tunable culture platform comprised of biomimetic wrinkles that simulate the heart's complex anisotropic and multiscale architecture for facile and robust cardiac cell alignment. We demonstrate the cellular and subcellular alignment of both neonatal mouse cardiomyocytes as well as those derived from human embryonic stem cells. By mimicking the fibrillar network of the extracellular matrix, this system enables monitoring of protein localization in real time and therefore the high-resolution study of phenotypic and physiologic responses to in-vivo like topographical cues.

The intrathymic crossroads of T and NK cell differentiation.

T lymphocytes depend on the thymic microenvironment for initiation of the T-cell developmental program. As the progenitors in the thymus have lost the capacity to self-renew, this process depends on the constant influx of hematopoietic progenitors that originate in the bone marrow. Nevertheless, thymic emigrants are heterogeneous and retain developmental plasticity for both the myeloid and lymphoid lineages. It is the role of the thymic microenvironment to steer these uncommitted progenitors toward a T-cell fate. Still, the thymus also generates a unique population of thymic NK cells, thus raising the question of how the T versus NK lymphoid cell fate is determined intrathymically. Many factors have been implicated in the developmental pathways in the thymus, and the processes are characterized by both subtle and not so subtle modifications in gene expression. In this review, we consider the crucial factors governing lineage determination of T cells versus NK cells from bi-potent thymic NK/T precursors. Recent reports have shed new light on the complex interactions of cytokines and transcription factors at different cell fate decision branch points in thymopoiesis. We discuss the implications of these findings and propose a model that may be applicable at this critical thymic NK/T juncture.

Expression of migration-related genes is progressively upregulated in murine Lineage-Sca-1+c-Kit+ population from the fetal to adult stages of development.

INTRODUCTION: Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) follow a genetically programmed pattern of migration during development. Extracellular matrix and adhesion molecules, as well as chemokines and their receptors, are important in adult HSC migration. However, little is known about the role these molecules play at earlier developmental stages. METHODS: We have analyzed by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) array the expression pattern of extracellular matrix and adhesion molecules as well as chemokines and chemokine receptors in Lineage-Sca-1+c-Kit+ (LSK) cells at different stages of development, in order to characterize the role played by these molecules in LSK. Data were represented by volcano plots to show the differences in expression pattern at the time points studied. RESULTS: Our results show marked changes in the expression pattern of extracellular matrix, adhesion molecules, chemokines and their receptors with developmental age, particularly in later stages of development. Ten molecules were significantly increased among the LSK populations studied. Our screen identified the upregulation of Col4a1, as well as molecules involved in its degradation (Mmp2, Timp2), with development. Other genes identified were Sell, Tgfbi, and Entpd1. Furthermore, we show that the expression of the chemokines Ccl4, Ccl9, Il18 and the chemokine receptor Cxcr4 increases in LSK cells during development. CONCLUSIONS: Several genes are upregulated in the LSK population in their transition to the bone marrow microenvironment, increasing at later stages of development. This gene pattern should be emulated by embryonic stem cell-derived hematopoietic progenitors in order to improve their properties for clinical applications such as engraftment.

A thymic pathway of mouse natural killer cell development characterized by expression of GATA-3 and CD127.

Natural killer (NK) cell development is thought to occur in the bone marrow. Here we identify the transcription factor GATA-3 and CD127 (IL-7R alpha) as molecular markers of a pathway of mouse NK cell development that originates in the thymus. Thymus-derived CD127+ NK cells repopulated peripheral lymphoid organs, and their homeostasis was strictly dependent on GATA-3 and interleukin 7. The CD127+ NK cells had a distinct phenotype (CD11b(lo) CD16- CD69(hi) Ly49(lo)) and unusual functional attributes, including reduced cytotoxicity but considerable cytokine production. Those characteristics are reminiscent of human CD56(hi) CD16- NK cells, which we found expressed CD127 and had more GATA-3 expression than human CD56+ CD16+ NK cells. We propose that bone marrow and thymic NK cell pathways generate distinct mouse NK cells with properties similar to those of the two human CD56 NK cell subsets.

Phospholipase C-gamma2 is essential for NK cell cytotoxicity and innate immunity to malignant and virally infected cells.

Phospholipase C-gamma2 (PLC-gamma2) is a key component of signal transduction in leukocytes. In natural killer (NK) cells, PLC-gamma2 is pivotal for cellular cytotoxicity; however, it is not known which steps of the cytolytic machinery it regulates. We found that PLC-gamma2-deficient NK cells formed conjugates with target cells and polarized the microtubule-organizing center, but failed to secrete cytotoxic granules, due to defective calcium mobilization. Consequently, cytotoxicity was completely abrogated in PLC-gamma2-deficient cells, regardless of whether targets expressed NKG2D ligands, missed self major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I, or whether NK cells were stimulated with IL-2 and antibodies specific for NKR-P1C, CD16, CD244, Ly49D, and Ly49H. Defective secretion was specific to cytotoxic granules because release of IFN-gamma on stimulation with IL-12 was normal. Plcg2-/- mice could not reject MHC class I-deficient lymphoma cells nor could they control CMV infection, but they effectively contained Listeria monocytogenes infection. Our results suggest that exocytosis of cytotoxic granules, but not cellular polarization toward targets, depends on intracellular calcium rise during NK cell cytotoxicity. In vivo, PLC-gamma2 regulates selective facets of innate immunity because it is essential for NK cell responses to malignant and virally infected cells but not to bacterial infections.

Stepwise development of committed progenitors in the bone marrow that generate functional T cells in the absence of the thymus.

We identified committed T cell progenitors (CTPs) in the mouse bone marrow that have not rearranged the TCRbeta gene; express a variety of genes associated with commitment to the T cell lineage, including GATA-3, T cell-specific factor-1, Cbeta, and Id2; and show a surface marker pattern (CD44+ CD25- CD24+ CD5-) that is similar to the earliest T cell progenitors in the thymus. More mature committed intermediate progenitors in the marrow have rearranged the TCR gene loci, express Valpha and Vbeta genes as well as CD3epsilon, but do not express surface TCR or CD3 receptors. CTPs, but not progenitors from the thymus, reconstituted the alphabeta T cells in the lymphoid tissues of athymic nu/nu mice. These reconstituted T cells vigorously secreted IFN-gamma after stimulation in vitro, and protected the mice against lethal infection with murine CMV. In conclusion, CTPs in wild-type bone marrow can generate functional T cells via an extrathymic pathway in athymic nu/nu mice.

Early defect prethymic in bone marrow T cell progenitors in athymic nu/nu mice.

nu/nu mice fail to develop a thymus and mature T cells due to a defect in the whn gene encoding a transcription factor necessary for terminal epithelial cell differentiation. We investigated whether early T cell progenitor development in the nu/nu bone marrow is also defective. We demonstrated a maturation arrest of nu/nu marrow T cell progenitors associated with a lack of pTalpha gene expression and a failure to give rise to mature T cells in adoptive euthymic hosts. Wild-type hemopoietic stem cells rapidly matured into functional T cell progenitors in the marrow of euthymic or thymectomized but not nu/nu hosts. We show that defects in bone marrow prethymic T cell development can also contribute to T cell deficiency in nu/nu mice.

Dielectrophoretic studies of the activation of human T lymphocytes using a newly developed cell profiling system.

Human T lymphocytes were stimulated using phorbol myristate acetate and ionomycin. Twenty-four hours post-activation the cells were harvested for DNA content and for measurements using a newly developed cell profiling system employing dielectrophoresis. This system provides individual cell size and dielectrophoresis data for statistically relevant numbers of control and activated cells. From this it was determined that the mean membrane specific capacitance decreased from 13.49 (+/- 4.72) mF/m(2) to 10.62 (+/- 5.13) mF/m(2). This can be related to a 21.3% reduction in the effective membrane surface area associated with membrane topography (e.g. reduction of membrane associated microvilli, blebs and folding), or to other changes of membrane architecture, following cell activation. From cytometric determinations of DNA content, it was concluded that these effects were related to a 3.0-fold decrease of cells in S-phase, and a 1.5-fold increase in G1 cells. This work demonstrates the powerful potential of using dielectrophoresis as a noninvasive tool to follow physiological changes that accompany transmembrane signaling events.